In today’s democracies, we take it for granted that universities are to contribute to an open society in which facts and arguments are central. It has not always been this way, however.
“Universities have spent most of their history, and to some extent flourished, in undemocratic societies. This is something that applies to this day, in China, for example,” says Johan Östling, professor of history at Lund University in Sweden, who has conducted extensive research on the role of knowledge in society.
And now, universities’ freedom is being restricted even in a democracy like the USA, where the Trump administration wants to control what the universities research and teach. Countries like Hungary and Poland have also seen increased state control over their universities. In Hungary, for example, the Central European University, CEU, was forced to leave the country after new demands from the government, something the European Court of Justice has criticised.
Could similar developments take place in other European countries?
“The European funding model is markedly different to the one in the USA, where universities are privately-funded to a greater extent. Here, we are significantly more dependent on state funding. This makes us more resilient, since there is a long-term approach and stronger legal protection. Yet it also makes us more vulnerable. Should the state change course, there are few alternative sources of funding,” says Johan Östling.
Sweden also has weaker legal protection than many other European countries when it comes to regulating academic freedom. As public authorities, higher education institutions are led by vice-chancellors, appointed by the Government. The Government also appoints the chair and the majority of members of university boards.
“So, it is easy to see that a Swedish Government has quite substantial opportunities to restrict freedom should it choose to do so,” says Johan Östling.
Swedish autonomy – strong tradition, weak protection
A government inquiry is now underway, intended to strengthen academic freedom in Sweden. This is taking place against a backdrop of many university staff perceiving threats to academic freedom, primarily because of political control, funding models and the parameters of acceptable discourse. The inquiry focuses on protecting individual freedoms for researchers and teaching staff, but the Government is also to investigate the governance of higher education institutions.
Johan Östling would like to see clearer legal regulations that create more genuine autonomy.
“Some legal scholars, as well as others, have pondered whether the public authority model could be replaced by a model like the one we have for the courts, which of course have a higher degree of independence but remain state bodies. I don't know if that is a possibility, but it is something that should feature in a forward-looking discussion. It is important that we look at forms of governance while we have relatively benevolent state powers. That could change, and the American example shows that things can happen quite quickly.”
Academic freedom changes throughout history
Various forms of advanced education have existed for several thousand years, but the University of Bologna, established in 1088, is usually regarded as the world’s first university. Like the University of Paris, it became influential during the Middle Ages. It was there that the foundations for what would long define a university were laid: self-determination over the form and content of teaching, its own jurisdiction (judicial authority), and fixed curricula and degree structures. Universities had significant freedom from the outset.
“During the Middle Ages and up to the 18th century, universities as institutions enjoyed a degree of autonomy, for example by maintaining their own jurisdiction. They also had a certain financial independence thanks to revenue from their own land holdings,” says Johan Östling, whose book “Kunskapens stora hus. Huvudlinjer i universitetets historia” (The Great House of Knowledge: Key Themes in the History of the University) was published in 2024, and is set to be released in English in the next year or so.
While universities were able to convict individuals and control their own finances, the Church held great sway over the content of teaching.
“Universities’ academic freedom was in fact limited to the institutions themselves. Individual freedom for teaching staff and students arrived in earnest only in the 19th century. Despite this, restrictions remained since society as a whole was pre-democratic in many ways,” Johan Östling continues.
Universities in constant flux
Until the 19th century, universities mainly concerned themselves with teaching, primarily communicating established truths. During the Enlightenment in the 18th century – when reason, science and practical progress were emphasised – scientific academies outside of universities sprang up, focusing on empirical research and natural science. Universities appeared anachronous and conservative in comparison.
“However, universities were revitalised in the early 19th century thanks to the spread of the German Humboldt model, in which research became a central focus. If it had not been for that, universities probably would not have had much to offer modern society,” says Johan Östling.
So, despite the original idea of universities having survived, their ability to as society changes around them has been crucial to their survival.
Expansion has reached its limit
In Sweden and the world, universities have expanded significantly since the 1950s. Johan Östling, however, believes that Swedish universities have reached a limit.
“This does not necessarily mean that we are going to wither away and become insignificant, but we might have to consider what really needs to exist and make a few difficult choices,” says Johan Östling.
He feels that there is every reason to look at countries such as Denmark, where trends suggest a shift from broad academic education towards vocational training, and England, where tuition fees and funding pressures are rising.
“There are changes happening that are undeniably somewhat alarming. But concentrating resources, attempting to streamline and prioritise does not have to be purely negative.”
Should we be worried about universities in Sweden?
“As a historian, I like to remind people of the long historical perspective. Universities have survived many social systems and crises, something that gives me great hope that universities in Sweden will continue to thrive. Higher education will still be necessary for most qualified jobs. I also believe that Swedish research can develop a great deal through the European collaborations that have really blossomed over the past ten to fifteen years,” says Johan Östling.
Despite this, major changes are to be expected.
“Some will be painful, although far from all of them will be. Universities need to adapt when society undergoes major changes in digitalisation, for example, or the role of knowledge in society. We must also preserve the long-term perspective and our core mission – to freely seek out and disseminate knowledge – which in many ways has of course remained constant over the centuries,” Johan Östling concludes.
